Key words for language

المحاضرة الأولى




Language : to communicate – discuss- express thoughts, desires, emotions .
Linguistics : scientific .
Linguistic knowledge : knowledge of native speakers .
Linguistic : nature of language – language presented in mind .
Sound : phonetics
Words : syntax
Semantics : science of meaning .
Utterance : verbal – vocal sentence .
Phoneme : minimum unit of phonology
Linguistic : research – continuation .
Typology : describing language – universal features .
Teaching oriented : applied language .
Theory oriented : theoretical language .
Applied : discourse – pragmatic .
Utterance : minimum unit in pragmatics.
Pragmatics : study o-f language in use .
John went to school : informative – no attitude .
I will if you will : refusal – central attitude – aggressive feeling

المحاضرة الثانية



In 1860, the grammarian Hockett published a book on the origin of language .


Language : means of communication .


Chomsky : language as system – formal linguistics .


Arbitrariness : no connection between form and meaning – no one to one correspondence between image and world .


Language is systematic : three variations of system :. phonetics – phonology – syntax .


Language is grammatical : governed by rules .


Language is displaced – displacement .


Language : productive and creative .


Language is idiomatic – peculiar expressions – predict meaning from constituent point .


English is marked language .


Basic word : unmarked form .


Any addition of certain parts : unmarked form .


Language : arbitrary – systematic – grammatical – displaced – productive – idiomatic – marked .


Language is universal .


Language is change : dialect.


We use sound to convey meaning .


Halliday : language consists of : sounds – words – sentences – utterance .


Phonetics and phonology : sounds .


Syntax : sentences .


Morphology : words .


Semantics : Meaning .


Pragmatics : meaning in relation to the context .


Applied : discourse – stylistics


Theoretical : syntax – semantics .


Computational : we use computers .


Semantic : meaning of words .


Asterisks ( * ) indicate the sentence is ill formed .


Emphasizing : Topicalisation .


We place prepositions before a noun .


Coloress green ideas sleep furiously ( Chomsky )


Approaches of language : 1. descriptive 2. prescriptive


1.descriptive:
unconscious use of language . people use of language – no linguistics
–no restriction – lexicon and mental dictionary – adequacy – competency
to know why sentence is ill or well formed – verb can agree in number with expletive and logical subject – no problem if we end a sentence with a preposition .


2. prescriptive: conscious – grammatical – verb should agree in number with logical subject – don’t end a sentence with prepositions .

المحاضرة الثالثة



Phonology : sound system .


Interface : bringing combined things together .


Grammar deals with words – form of words .


Traditional of grammar : parts of speech - study of agreement


Words has meaning is lexical item – and independent


Open class is endless .


Closed class : pronouns –prepositions – articles – conjunctions .


Closed class : means limited number of items .


Lexical items : nouns – adverbs – adjectives and adverbs .


Agreement : 1. Number : singular or plural . 2. person : a. first pronoun (I) b. second person (you) c. third person ( someone)


Marked means change words by addition of affixes and suffixes.


Welsh : started with verb – end in questions marks – declarative sentence .


Cross –linguistics study : agreement features – meaning of sentences .


From tense we can transliterate from one language to another .


Voice : Active voice – passive voice .


Gender : masculine / feminine . or male / female .


Tense Aspect : progressive or perfective .


Tense mood : declarative – imperative – subjective mood .


Modern grammar ; how many forms a word – dealing with morphology .


Position of words : Distribution .


Performance of words : function .


Modern grammatical categories ; phrasal – lexical – functional – semantic or thematic .


Phrasal categories ; nouns- verbs – Adjectives – Adverbial –


Phrase consist of ; nouns – articles – adjectives .


Articles is determiner


Lexical : nouns – verbs – adjectives – adverbs .


Functional categories : prepositions – Articles – pronouns – conjunctions .


Semantic category ( thematic ) ; using something from meaning .


John killed Mary ; john is subject and action . or agent in semantic .


John wrote a letter to mary . Mary is reciprocal


John traveled to London . London in thematic is ******** and goal .


Lightfoot : grammar is mental in mind – brain – individual characterizing – individual linguistics capacity .


Grammar is a mental identity and starts in lexicon- mental dictionary .


Shift in linguistics ; how to form a sentence as teachers – native speakers .


We bring child to learn language by experiments .


Well –formed means a sentence is correct .


Ill – formed means a sentence is wrong in sentence.


Socio- linguistics is less natural .


Prescriptive rule : don’t split an infinitive .


To boldly go : prescriptive approach .


Prescriptive rule ; don’t end a sentence with a prepositions .


When we place a prepositions at the end , we call it a standed prepositions .


WHO / WHOM : whom is old fashion . and it is of no use .


Don’t begin a sentence with a conjunctions (( and - but ) .


We can’t use contracted form all the time . when we are writing essay .


Structural Analysis ; it is based on test – frames ( slots) ex: the ------ makes a lot of noise .


Constituent is actually a simple phrase .


Phrase ; part of sentence consist of 2 or 3 words .


John wrote a book ) wrote a book : VP a book : NP)


( john Applied for this job ) john : NP Applied for this job : VP for this job : pp


( the cat sat on the mat ) the cat : NP sat on the mat : VP on the mat : pp

المحاضرة الرابعة



Components of syntax : lexicon – morphology inflection – word order .


Lexicon : mental dictionary – presence of word class .


Lexicon determines the semantic meaning of word classes .


Morphology inflection : past tense and tense indicates verb .


Tense , aspect, mood : they simplify the inherent inflections of words .


John opened the door with a key . john is noun and doer of action . with a key is complement . john in semantic is agent .


We have 2 types of word- order : 1. marked word order 2. unmarked word order.


Ex : play is unmarked because nothing is added .


Ex : played is marked by adding (ed) .


It was the letter that john sent to Mary : simple declarative sentence – cleft and marked sentence


John sent the letter to Mary : kernel sentence – unmarked


Proper grammar : best type of grammar and advocated by prescriptive grammarians .


Mental grammar : internal linguistics knowledge of native speakers - subconscious process – brain of native speakers .


Linguistics individual capacity : internal linguistic knowledge .


Objectives : 1. Universality of language 2. Achieve descriptive adequacy : how native speakers use a language .


Explanatory adequacy : ungrammatical constructions .


Explanatory adequacy : is a construction whether it is grammatically correct or incorrect.


Grammatical functions :
1.subject 2. verb action assertion ex: john weeps 3. subjective
complement ex: john became angry 4. direct object ex: Mary attended
the graduations 5. object: they elected Henry a treasurer 6.
objective complement ex: they painted the wall white . 7. object
of prepositions ex : the boy ran down the river .


A sentence is a group of words that convey a certain meaning .


A word is the central unit of grammar .


Types of sentences : 1. simple 2. compound 3. complex 4. complex compound .


Simple sentences conveys one single thoughts .


Compound sentences has 2 independent clauses grouped by a coordinating conjunctions .


Complex sentence we have one independent followed by one or two dependents clauses



A phrase is a group of words without a subject or a verb .


Head of phrases can’t be omitted .


Types of phrases :
1. noun phrase 2. verb phrase 3. adjectival phrase 4. adverbial
phrase 5. prepositional phrase 6. infinitive phrase 7. participle
phrase .


1. noun phrase ; ex: john - English teacher –


2. verb phrase ; ex: mary told her husband the truth .


3. adjectival phrase ex : attributive ( lucky boy) predicative ( the boy is lucky )


4. adverbial phrase : ex: early .


5. prepositional phrase : ex: the boy runs down near the river .


6. infinitive phrase : to+ zero form ex : Mary is eager to work oh his project .


7. participle phrase : begins either with a progressive tense or perfective tense . ex : racing down the river , the boy slept and failed .

المحاضرة الخامسة




Phrases are dependent on something which is being preceded.

Mark has made my dad very proud . Mark is a phrase .

The boy . the : determiner boy : Noun

Mark bought a blue jacket . adjectival phrase – the position is nominal .

Infinitive phrase starts with (( to )) ex: Mark is eager to work his project .

Copula & Auxiliary verb : ex: Mary is ill .

The student is clever . statement sentence .

The teacher is meeting the students . (( ing )) going activity .

The teacher has met the students. (( has)) auxiliary verb – morphological distribution of main verb .

Every thing in grammar from three perspectives : 1. morphological 2. distribution 3. intention and function .

Morphological : (has)

Distribution : position of an auxiliary verb or sentence .

(( have )) should follow the subject . in distribution .

Adverbs would come at the end of the sentence of sentence . distribution .

Distribution means the position of an adjectives, adverbs, even a noun or verb .

Nature of clauses : 1. john arrived early 2.Mark was half an hour late : these two sentences are declarative .

3. Mark didn't even show up . negative sentence

If I want to join these sentences , we use conjunctions. Ex: and .

4. Mary has announced Bill's departures . noun phrase

5. Mary has announced that Bill will leave the company . clause – complex sentence

Mary has announced is higher clause or Matrix clause .

that Bill will leave the company . subordinate or lower clause .

we can have a main clause or a matrix clause followed by a subordinate clause or lower clause --- complex sentence .

or we can have 2 independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction ------- compound sentence .

in a complex sentence should be independent joined by a coordinating conjunction.

The dependent clause is called subordinate clause . it is a lower clause .

To the park . park is the head because it carries the meaning .

Free standing means independent .

That bill will leave the company . it is declarative or kernel one .

Will bill leave the company . interrogative

Leave the company . imperative clause .

What a disaster Bill has turned up to be . exclamation

Free standing clauses : 1. declarative 2. imperative 3. Exclamation 4. Interrogative .

The matrix one is mother clause introducing a dependent clause.

The subordinate is dependent clause.

Passive form & Matrix clauses :

1. Mary has announced Bill's departure . passive form is : Bill's departure has been announced by Mary.

When we have a clause starting with / that/ , we call it sentential clause or clausal complement or clausal complement because it comes at the beginning of the sentence .

Kim persuaded John to **** a nice meal . persuaded is verb – to **** a nice meal is clause.

I wonder whether john is leaving soon . wonder is verb - john is leaving soon is clause

The news that Mary is leaving astonished every one . astonished is verb

Kim claimed that john is clever . claimed is verb - that john is clever is clause .

Kim persuaded John ……. Higher clause - matrix clause - Higher clause

To **** a nice meal …….. lower clause - subordinate clause – Child clause .

To **** a nice meal …….. infinitive clause.

Whether john is leaving soon ……. Nominal clause .

Kim claimed that John is clever …… matrix clause followed by a subordinate clause .

The news that Mary is leaving astonished every one ….. relative clause – appositive clause.

Kim claimed that John is clever ……… appositive clause – relative clause

Claim, persuade, wonder : whatever is following them is a type of dependent clause .

Complementizers :

It seems unexpected for john to act so hastily . for john is a complementizer . that and for also

We have many Complementizers in English : 1. which 2. that 3. for 4. whether .

Whenever we find " for" we call what is following it as infinitive like " for john to act hastily .

For is complementizer - to act hastily is infinitive .

Subordinate clauses are always dependent . they can follow or precede the verb .

Matrix clauses should start at the beginning of sentences .

Subordinate clauses are always dependent .

In matrix clause we have finite verb .

In subordinate we have a full phrase .

In matrix clause we have subject – auxiliary inversion, it is abbreviated as SAI.

Kim persuaded John to **** a nice meal . we use auxiliary verb ((did)) Dami-do to form a question.

Kim persuaded John to **** a nice meal . to form a tag question - Kim persuaded John to **** a nice meal, didn't he .

المحاضرة السادسة






Constructions

1. *More coffee?* : phrase .

2. * The police! * : exclamation .

3. john waited . : predicate .

The subject of a clause is a phrase of one word or more which is headed by a noun .

The predicate of a clause is a verb phrase containing one verb or a verb and another phrase .

The predicate can be either just one verb or two verbs .

The girl talked ----- phrase NP

Talked ----- verb V

The girls talked loudly ……… Adverb .

The girl talked to the teacher …….. prepositional phrase .

I can't omit the verb, but we can omit everything that comes after it .

1. My dog has dug up all of the daffodils . my dog : NP has dug up: VP all of the daffodils : NP

2. in the afternoon , the group walked quiet slowly . in the afternoon : PP the group :NP walked : VP quiet slowly : Adverb

The predicate doesn't have to be consisting of one verb. It can be verb+ dependence .

My dog has dug up all of the daffodils

My dog ------------------------------------ NP

has dug up --------------------------------- VP

all of the daffodils------------------------- NP

in the afternoon , the group walked quiet slowly

in the afternoon-------------------------- PP

the group----------------------------------NP

walked-------------------------------------VP

quiet slowly ------------------------------ adverb

quiet--------------------------------------- intensifier

My younger brother has bought a new house in the country

My younger brother …………………….. NP

My ………………………………………. Determiner

Younger …………………………………. ADJ

Brother …………………………………... N

has bought………………………………… VP

has………………………………………… AUX

bought------------------------------------------- V

a new house------------------------------------- NP

a…………………………………………... determiner

new ---------------------------------------------- ADJ

house …………………………………….. noun

in the country …………………………… PP

in ………………………………………… P

the ……………………………………….. determiner

country ………………………………….. noun

the determiner should precede the noun .

matrix clause followed by a subordinate clause .

subordinate clause as embedded clause . we can call

simple sentence has one independent clause .

Compound sentence has 2independent clauses

Complex sentence has one dependent clause + independent clause

Matrix clause has a verb and this verb to decide what type of subordinate clause is wrong to form .

Matrix clause applied on process : subject auxiliary inversion – Tag questions .

John persuaded Kim to **** a nice . we use Dami-do in order to form a questions .

Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a complementizer .

Subordinate clause can either follow or precede the verb .

That Chris liked Kim so much . Subordinate clause

Matrix clauses can't be moved .

Matrix clause process : subject auxiliary inversion – tag questions .

It seems unexpected for john to act so hastily . for is complementizer

Subordinate clause keeps on moving . it keeps on changing .

We have 2 types of embedded clauses : 1. finite clauses 2. Non finite clauses .

Ex : reading is non – finite .

Finite is verb - non finite is ing form.

Relative clause is introduced by relative pronouns .

Relative pronouns are : which – whose – that .

Ex : the man (whose car we crashed into) called the police . relative clause .

Ex2: we will rent the apartment to the person( that we like best) . relative clause .

Adverbial embedded clauses : introduced by words like : 1. Because 2. since 3. As if 4. whether .

Indicators for Adverbial clauses : while-because – As if – since – in order that – unless – whenever.

Ex: the department called an urgent meeting because the dean has resigned. Subordinate clause is " because the dean has resigned .

Complement clauses : that – persuade – whether – wonder – think – believe .

Ex: the theory( that Prof. Jones believed in) is not convincing . relative and subordinate clause .

Subject clause : whenever the embedded clause precedes the verb , then we call it a subject clause .

Non- finite embedded clauses :

Ex1: [ to live in Damascus] has been his dream

Ex2: that is difficult[ to believe] .

Ex3: [ Exhausted after the day's work] John left early .

Ex4:[ Having finished the project successfully] the team celebrated .

Ex : [ exhausted after the day's work] john left early . non – finite embedded clause .

Ex2: [ having finished the project successfully ] non-finite embedded clause .